We decipher the dog's tests - Be healthy! Biochemical blood test - Veterinary nephrology clinic VeraVet. Veterinarian at home

Decreased (anemia): different kinds anemia, incl. due to blood loss.

Red blood cells.
Increased: erythremia, heart failure, chronic diseases lungs, dehydration.

Decreased: various types of anemia, incl. hemolytic and due to blood loss.

Hematocrit
Increased: erythremia, cardiac and pulmonary failure, dehydration.

Decreased: various types of anemia, incl. hemolytic.

ESR.
Increased: inflammatory processes, poisoning, infections, invasions, tumors, hematological malignancies, blood loss, injuries, surgical interventions.

Leukocytes.
Increased: inflammatory processes, poisoning, viral infections, invasions, blood loss, injuries, allergic reactions, tumors, myeloid leukemia, lymphocytic leukemia.

Decreased: acute and chronic infections (rare), liver diseases, autoimmune diseases, exposure to certain antibiotics, toxic substances and cytostatics, radiation sickness, aplastic anemia, agranulocytosis.

Neutrophils.
Increased: inflammatory processes, poisoning, shock, blood loss, hemolytic anemia.

Decreased: viral infections, exposure to certain antibiotics, toxic substances and cytostatics, radiation sickness, aplastic anemia, agranulocytosis.

An increase in the number of band neutrophils, the appearance of myelocytes: sepsis, malignant tumors, myeloid leukemia.

Eosinophils.
Increased: allergic reactions, sensitization, invasions, tumors, hematological malignancies.

Basophils.
Increase: hemoblastosis.

Lymphocytes.
Increased: infections, neutropenia (relative increase), lymphocytic leukemia.

Monocytes.
Increased: chronic infections, tumors, chronic monocytic leukemia.

Myelocytes.
Detection: chronic myeloid leukemia, acute and chronic inflammatory processes, sepsis, bleeding, shock.

Reticulocytes.
Increased: blood loss, hemolytic anemia

Decreased: hypoplastic anemia.

Red blood cell diameter.

Increased: B12 and folate deficiency anemia, liver disease. Decreased: iron deficiency and hemolytic anemia.

Platelets.
Increased: myeloproliferative diseases.

Decreased: acute and chronic leukemia, liver cirrhosis, aplastic anemia, autoimmune hemolytic anemia, thrombocytopenic purpura, systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, allergies, intoxication, chronic infections.

Blood biochemistry

Norms of biochemical parameters of dog blood serum (according to M. Filippov, 2001)

Glucose 3.3-6.0 Mmol/l

Protein 54-77 g/l

Albumin 25-37 g/l

Cholesterol 3.3-7.0 Mmol/l

Total bilirubin 0-7.5 µmol/l

Alanine aminotransferase 10-55 U/l

Aspartate aminotransferase 10-55 U/l

Lactate dehydrogenase 50-495 U/l

Alkaline phosphatase 10-150 U/l

Gamma-glutamyltransferase 1-10 U/l

Amylase 300-2000 U/l

Urea 4.3-8.9 Mmol/l

Creatinine 35-133 µmol/l

Inorganic phosphorus 0.7-1.8 µmol/l

Calcium 2.0-2.7 µmol/l

Magnesium 0.72-1.2 µmol/l

Uric acid up to 160 (according to P.F. Suter, 2001) µmol/l

Triglycerides 0.56 (according to P.F. Suter 2001) µmol/l

Electrolytes:

Potassium (K+) 4.0-5.7 µmol/l

Sodium (Na+) 141-155 µmol/l

Chlorides (Cl-) 103-115 µmol/l

Possible reasons for deviation from the norm

1. Glucose is a universal source of energy for cells - the main substance from which any cell in the body receives energy for life. The body's need for energy, and therefore glucose, increases in parallel with physical and psychological stress under the influence of the stress hormone - adrenaline, during growth, development, recovery (growth hormones, thyroid gland, adrenal glands). The average value for dogs is 4.3-7.3 mmol/l. For the absorption of glucose by cells, a normal level of insulin, the pancreatic hormone, is necessary. With its deficiency (diabetes mellitus), glucose cannot enter the cells, its level in the blood is increased, and the cells starve. Increased (hyperglycemia): - diabetes mellitus (insulin deficiency) - physical or emotional stress (adrenaline release) - thyrotoxicosis (increased thyroid function) - Cushing's syndrome (increased levels of the adrenal hormone - cortisol) - pancreatic diseases (pancreatitis, tumor, cystic fibrosis ) - chronic diseases of the liver, kidneys Reduction (hypoglycemia): - fasting - insulin overdose - diseases of the pancreas (tumor of cells that synthesize insulin) - tumors (excessive consumption of glucose as an energy material by tumor cells) - insufficiency of the function of the endocrine glands (adrenal glands, thyroid , pituitary gland (growth hormone)) - severe poisoning with liver damage (alcohol, arsenic, chlorine and phosphorus compounds, salicylates, antihistamines)

2. General protein “Life is the way of existence of protein bodies.” Proteins are the main biochemical criterion of life. They are part of all anatomical structures (muscles, cell membranes), transport substances through the blood and into cells, accelerate the course of biochemical reactions in the body, recognize substances - their own or foreign ones and protect them from foreign ones, regulate metabolism, retain fluid in blood vessels and do not allow it to go into the tissue. Proteins are synthesized in the liver from food amino acids. Total blood protein consists of two fractions: albumin and globulin. Average for dogs - 59-73 g/l, Increase (hyperproteinemia): - dehydration (burns, diarrhea, vomiting - relative increase in protein concentration due to a decrease in fluid volume) - multiple myeloma (excessive production of gamma globulins) Decrease (hypoproteinemia): - fasting (complete or protein - strict vegetarianism, anorexia nervosa) - intestinal diseases (malabsorption) - nephrotic syndrome (renal failure) - increased consumption (blood loss, burns, tumors, ascites, chronic and acute inflammation) - chronic liver failure (hepatitis , cirrhosis)

3.Albumin - one of two fractions total protein- transport.

The norm for dogs is 22-39 g/l. Increase (hyperalbuminemia): True (absolute) hyperalbuminemia does not exist. Relative occurs when the total volume of fluid decreases (dehydration) Reduction (hypoalbuminemia): The same as for general hypoproteinemia.

4. General bilirubin is a component of bile, consists of two fractions - indirect (unbound), formed during the breakdown of blood cells (erythrocytes), and direct (bound), formed from indirect in the liver and excreted through the bile ducts into the intestines. It is a coloring substance (pigment), so when it increases in the blood, the color of the skin changes - jaundice. Increased (hyperbilirubinemia): - damage to liver cells (hepatitis, hepatosis - parenchymal jaundice) - obstruction of the bile ducts (obstructive jaundice)

5.Urea is a product of protein metabolism that is removed by the kidneys. Some remains in the blood. The norm for a dog is 3-8.5 mmol/l, Increase: - impaired renal function - urinary tract obstruction - increased protein content in food - increased protein destruction (burns, acute myocardial infarction) Decrease: - protein starvation - excess protein intake (pregnancy, acromegaly) - malabsorption

6. Creatinine is the final product of the metabolism of creatine, synthesized in the kidneys and liver from three amino acids (arginine, glycine, methionine). It is completely excreted from the body by the kidneys by glomerular filtration, without being reabsorbed in the renal tubules. The norm for a dog is 30-170 µmol/l. Increased: - impaired renal function (renal failure) - hyperthyroidism Decreased: - pregnancy - age-related decreases in muscle mass

7.Alanine aminotransferase (ALAT) An enzyme produced by cells of the liver, skeletal muscles and heart. The norm for a dog is 0-65 IU, Increase: - destruction of liver cells (necrosis, cirrhosis, jaundice, tumors) - destruction of muscle tissue (trauma, myositis, muscular dystrophy) - burns - toxic effects on the liver of drugs (antibiotics, etc.)

8. Aspartate aminotransferase (AST) - An enzyme produced by cells of the heart, liver, skeletal muscles and red blood cells. Average content in dogs - 10-42 units, Increase: - damage to liver cells (hepatitis, toxic damage from drugs, liver metastases) - severe exercise stress- heart failure - burns, heat stroke

9. Gamma-glutamyltransferase (Gamma-GT) - An enzyme produced by cells of the liver, pancreas, and thyroid gland. dogs - 0-8 units, Increase: - liver diseases (hepatitis, cirrhosis, cancer) - pancreas diseases (pancreatitis, diabetes mellitus) - hyperthyroidism (hyperfunction of the thyroid gland)

10. Alpha-Amylase - An enzyme produced by the cells of the pancreas and parotid salivary glands. The norm for a dog is 550-1700 IU, Increase: - pancreatitis (inflammation of the pancreas) - mumps (inflammation of the parotid salivary gland) - diabetes mellitus - volvulus of the stomach and intestines - peritonitis Decrease: - insufficiency of pancreatic function - thyrotoxicosis Potassium, sodium, chlorides -Provide electrical properties of cell membranes. By different sides The cell membrane is specially maintained by a difference in concentration and charge: there is more sodium and chloride outside the cell, and more potassium inside, but less than sodium outside - this creates a potential difference between the sides of the cell membrane - a resting charge that allows the cell to be alive and respond to nerve impulses, participating in the systemic activities of the body. Losing charge, the cell leaves the system, because cannot perceive brain commands. Thus, sodium and chlorides are extracellular ions, potassium is intracellular. In addition to maintaining the resting potential, these ions take part in the generation and conduction of a nerve impulse - the action potential. Regulation of mineral metabolism in the body (hormones of the adrenal cortex) is aimed at retaining sodium, which is lacking in natural food (without table salt), and removing potassium from the blood, where it enters during cell destruction. Ions, together with other solutes, retain fluid: cytoplasm inside cells, extracellular fluid in tissues, blood in blood vessels, regulating blood pressure, preventing the development of edema. Chlorides are part of gastric juice.

11. Potassium: dogs - 3.6-5.5, Increased potassium (hyperkalemia): - cell damage (hemolysis - destruction of blood cells, severe starvation, convulsions, severe injuries) - dehydration - acute renal failure (impaired excretion by the kidneys) - hyperadrenocorticosis Decreased potassium ( hypokalemia) - impaired renal function - excess hormones of the adrenal cortex (including taking dosage forms cortisone) - hypoadrenocorticosis

12. Dog sodium - 140-155, Increased sodium (hypernatremia), excessive retention (increased function of the adrenal cortex) - disturbance of the central regulation of water-salt metabolism (pathology of the hypothalamus, coma) Reduction of sodium (hyponatremia): - loss (abuse of diuretics, kidney pathology , adrenal insufficiency) - decreased concentration due to increased fluid volume (diabetes mellitus, chronic heart failure, liver cirrhosis, nephrotic syndrome, edema)

13. Dog chlorides – 105-122, Increased chlorides: - dehydration - acute renal failure - diabetes insipidus - salicylate poisoning - increased function of the adrenal cortex Decrease in chlorides: - profuse diarrhea, vomiting, - increased fluid volume

14. Dog calcium – 2.25-3 mmol/l. Participates in the conduction of nerve impulses, especially in the heart muscle. Like all ions, it retains fluid in the vascular bed, preventing the development of edema. Necessary for muscle contraction and blood clotting. Part of bone tissue and tooth enamel. Blood levels are regulated by parathyroid hormone and vitamin D. Parathyroid hormone increases blood calcium levels by leaching from bones, increasing intestinal absorption and delaying renal excretion. Increased (hypercalcemia): - increased function of the parathyroid gland - malignant tumors with bone damage (metastases, myeloma, leukemia) - excess vitamin D - dehydration Decreased (hypocalcemia): - decreased function of the thyroid gland - vitamin D deficiency - chronic renal failure - magnesium deficiency

15. Inorganic phosphorus Dogs – 0.8-2.3, An element that is part of nucleic acids, bone tissue and the main energy supply systems of the cell - ATP. Regulated in parallel with calcium levels. Increase: - destruction of bone tissue (tumors, leukemia) - excess vitamin D - healing of fractures - endocrine disorders - renal failure Decrease: - lack of growth hormone - vitamin D deficiency - malabsorption, severe diarrhea, vomiting - hypercalcemia

16.Alkaline phosphatase Dogs – 0-100, Enzyme formed in bone tissue, liver, intestines, placenta, lungs. Increase: - pregnancy - increased turnover in bone tissue ( fast growth, healing of fractures, rickets, hyperparathyroidism) - bone diseases (osteogenic sarcoma, cancer metastases in the bone) - liver diseases Decreased: - hypothyroidism (underfunction of the thyroid gland) - anemia (anemia) - lack of vitamin C, B12, zinc, magnesium LIPIDS Lipids ( fats) are substances necessary for a living organism. The main lipid that a person receives from food, and from which their own lipids are then formed, is cholesterol. It is part of cell membranes and maintains their strength. From it the so-called steroid hormones: hormones of the adrenal cortex, regulating water-salt and carbohydrate metabolism, adapting the body to new conditions; sex hormones. Bile acids are formed from cholesterol, which are involved in the absorption of fats in the intestines. From cholesterol in the skin under the influence sun rays Vitamin D is synthesized, which is necessary for the absorption of calcium. When the integrity of the vascular wall is damaged and/or there is excess cholesterol in the blood, it is deposited on the wall and forms a cholesterol plaque. This condition is called vascular atherosclerosis: plaques narrow the lumen, interfere with blood flow, disrupt the smooth flow of blood, increase blood clotting, and promote the formation of blood clots. In the liver, various complexes of lipids with proteins are formed that circulate in the blood: high, low and very low density lipoproteins (HDL, LDL, VLDL); total cholesterol is divided between them. Low and very low density lipoproteins are deposited in plaques and contribute to the progression of atherosclerosis. Lipoproteins high density due to the presence of a special protein in them - apoprotein A1 - they contribute to the “pulling” of cholesterol from plaques and play a protective role, stopping atherosclerosis. To assess the risk of a condition, it is not the total level of total cholesterol that is important, but the ratio of its fractions.

17. Total cholesterol in Dogs – 2.9-8.3, Increased: - liver disease - hypothyroidism (underfunction of the thyroid gland) - coronary heart disease (atherosclerosis) - hyperadrenocorticism Decrease: - enteropathy accompanied by loss of protein - hepatopathy (portocaval anastomosis, cirrhosis) - malignant neoplasms - poor nutrition

Analysis of urine

Fine:
Indicator Units Norm Amount ml/kg/day 24-41
Yellow color
Transparency transparent
Density g/ml 1.0 15 - 1.0 50
Protein mg/l 0-300
Glucose 0
Ketone bodies 0
Creatinine g/l 1-3
Amylase units
Somogy 50-150
Bilirubin traces
Urobilinogen traces pH units 5.0-7.0
Hemoglobin 0
Red blood cells 0-unit
Leukocytes 0-unit
0-unit cylinders

Possible reasons for deviations from normal values

Color.
Normally, urine is yellow in color. Decrease or disappearance yellow color indicates a decrease in urine concentration as a result of increased water excretion (polyuria). An intense yellow color indicates an increase in urine concentration, for example due to dehydration (oliguria). Urine acquires a green color as a result of the release of bilirubin. The color of urine changes after taking certain vitamins.

Transparency.
Normal urine is clear. Cloudy urine occurs when bacteria, leukocytes, red blood cells, epithelial cells, salts, fat and mucus are released. Turbidity that disappears when urine is heated in a test tube is probably caused by urate. If the turbidity does not disappear after heating, then add a few drops to the test tube acetic acid. The disappearance of turbidity indicates the presence of phosphates. If the cloudiness disappears after adding a few drops of hydrochloric acid, this may indicate the presence of calcium oxalate. The turbidity caused by droplets of fat disappears after shaking the urine with a mixture of alcohol and ether.

Bilirubin.
Detection in significant quantities: hemolysis (autoimmune hemolytic anemia, piroplasmosis, leptospirosis), liver disease, impaired flow of bile into the intestines, fever, fasting.

Urobilinogen.
Detection in significant quantities: hemolysis, liver disease, increased activity of intestinal microflora. Absence: impaired flow of bile into the intestines. pH. Normally, dog urine has a slightly acidic or neutral reaction. Urine alkalinity may indicate a plant-based diet, alkaline medications, chronic urinary tract infection, metabolic and respiratory alkalosis. The acidity of urine increases with a meat diet, increased breakdown of proteins, administration of acidic drugs, metabolic and respiratory acidosis.

Hemoglobin.
Detection (hemoglobinuria): autoimmune hemolytic anemia, sepsis, piroplasmosis, leptospirosis, poisoning with hemolytic poisons (phenothiazine, methylene blue, copper and lead preparations), infusion of incompatible blood. Hemoglobinuria is distinguished from hematuria by microscopy of urine sediment. With hematuria, a large number of red blood cells are found in the urine sediment. False hemoglobinuria can occur with hemolysis of red blood cells in weakly concentrated and old urine.

Red blood cells.
Detection in significant quantities (hematuria): pyelonephritis, glomerulonephritis, hemorrhagic diathesis, thrombocytopenia, anticoagulant poisoning, kidney infarction, inflammatory diseases, injuries and tumors of the genitourinary organs, urolithiasis, dioctophimosis.

Leukocytes.
Detection in significant quantities: inflammatory diseases of the kidneys and urinary tract.

Cylinders.
Detection in significant quantities: renal parenchyma damage, proteinuria (hyaline casts), hematuria (erythrocyte casts), hemoglobinuria (pigment casts), pyelonephritis (leukocyte casts)

The day has come when your beloved dog underwent a urine test in a clinical setting. And you, having received the result and looked at the beautiful form, where some names and numbers are written in a column, you understand... that you don’t understand anything! In order to understand what the analysis indicates, below are some transcripts. With their help, you will be at least a little “in the know.” But it is worth knowing that this article is purely educational in nature and in no way is a way to make a diagnosis. Only a professional veterinarian can determine the correct, meaningful diagnosis and apply treatment to your dog.

Dog urine color

The normal color is yellow, which is determined by the saturation of substances dissolved in the animal’s urine. Deviation from the normal appearance - is it light or dark yellow colors. If there is a sudden change in color, for example to black or red-brown, then this indicates a serious illness. By cloudiness we mean a large number of bacteria or salts.

Reaction

The reaction of urine refers to the level of acidity. It depends on how and what the animal eats. If the diet consists mainly of meat foods, then the urine will show an acidic reaction; if it is vegetable, then it will be alkaline. A mixed diet will show a weak acid reaction, which is considered normal.

Relative density

Determined by comparison specific gravity water with the specific gravity of urine. Characterizes the ability to concentrate urine by the animal’s kidneys, i.e. shows how well the kidneys are working. Normal urine specific gravity values ​​range from 1.02 to 1.035.

Chemical analysis of dog urine

Chemical analysis evaluates how much bilirubin, protein, ketone bodies, urobilinogen and glucose.

An amount of up to 0.30 g/l is considered normal. An increase in the amount of protein in the urine means that the dog is undergoing some changes in the body, for example, a chronic infection or destructive processes are occurring in the kidneys.

A healthy dog's urine should be free of glucose. If this is present, then a disturbance in the flow of glucose filtration should be suspected, which is a consequence of acute renal failure, or diabetes mellitus.

We will not explain what ketone bodies are, but you should know that in a single urine test, they are not detected in a healthy dog. The presence of ketone bodies in a urine sample may indicate severe metabolic disorders, including starvation.

Simply put, these are ordinary bile pigments. The urine of a healthy dog ​​does not contain them. If these are present, it is assumed that there is liver damage or a violation of the movement of bile.

Dog Urine Sediment Tests

Urine sediment contains organic elements (another name for organized sediment) and inorganic elements (salts or unorganized sediment). Hematuria - the presence of red blood cells in the urine, characterizes diseases such as damage to the urinary tract (for example cystitis).

Presence of hemoglobin

Hemoglobinuria is the content of hemoglobin in urine, which is caused by intravascular destruction of red blood cells. At the same time, the color of the urine becomes coffee. If there are a lot of leukocytes in the urine, then we can conclude that the kidneys are inflamed or the urinary tract is affected by infection (urethritis).

Epithelial cells are always found in dog urine sediment. The norm is if, when viewed through a microscope, no more than 5 pieces are visible. Epithelial cells have different nature origin. There is a squamous epithelial cell that enters the urine from the vagina and does not carry any diagnostic information. And if there are a lot transitional epithelium, then this indicates inflammatory actions occurring in the prostate gland, bladder, ureters and even the possibility of new formations in the urinary tract.

Inorganic elements

These are mainly salts that can precipitate as crystals or as amorphous compounds. The composition of salts is very dependent on the level of acidity of the urine. Under normal conditions, urine in the bladder is sterile. Microbes enter the urine from the urethra and their number should not exceed 10,000 pieces per 1 ml. If there is such an excess, then your pet has a urinary tract infection.

How to collect a urine test from a dog

We remind you that the material is collected in a sterile Plastic container, which can be purchased at any pharmacy.

For analysis, at least 5-10 ml of urine is needed, but 20-100 ml is better, since a small amount of diagnostically important cellular elements may not be included in the urine. For analysis, it is advisable to collect an average portion of urine, but even this may contain some elements urethra, external genitalia, etc. In order to reduce such errors to a minimum, before collecting urine, it is advisable to thoroughly clean the external genitalia (especially in dogs), to prevent hair, sand, litter, feces, insects and other foreign impurities from getting into sample Collected urine long-term storage is not subject to. If you have urinary problems, you can collect urine from the floor with a pipette or syringe (you need to inform your doctor about this). It is IMPOSSIBLE to collect urine with cotton wool or a rag, because all the basic information - cells, salts, etc.) will remain on the cotton wool/rag, which will distort the analysis result.

Collecting urine from a bitch

A flat tray or saucer is first prepared at home for collecting urine. It must be washed thoroughly with water without detergents and pour boiling water over it. When going outside, you need to take with you a prepared tray, a container for urine and a second person – an assistant. One person holds the dog on a leash, and the second, at the moment of urination, places a tray under the stream of urine and takes away the average portion of urine.

Collecting urine from a male dog

You can take a container for urine and a second person - an assistant - with you outside. To collect urine, you can use the container itself or it is very convenient to use a ladle (ladle) to collect it, placing it in the stream of urine and then pouring it into the container. One person holds the dog on a leash, and the second person, at the time of urination, places an open container (ladder) under the stream of urine and takes a medium portion of urine. If the animal does not want to urinate in the substituted container, you have to use a condom. To do this, use a condom for ultrasound. In two opposite places near the elastic you need to make small cuts and thread the ropes. The condom is put on the male dog and the strings are tied on the back. Then the urine can be poured into a container.

Urinalysis includes assessment physicochemical characteristics of urine and microscopy of sediment. This study allows you to evaluate renal function and other internal organs, as well as to identify the inflammatory process in urinary tract. Together with the general clinical analysis blood, the results of this study can tell quite a lot about the processes occurring in the body and, most importantly, indicate the direction of further diagnostic search.

Indications for the purpose of analysis:

Secondary ketonuria:
- thyrotoxicosis;
- Itsenko-Cushing's disease; overproduction of corticosteroids (tumor of the anterior pituitary gland or adrenal gland);

Hemoglobin.

Norm: dogs, cats - absent.

Hemoglobinuria is characterized by red or dark brown (black) urine and dysuria. Hemoglobinuria must be distinguished from hematuria, alkaptonuria, melaninuria, and porphyria. With hemoglobinuria, there are no red blood cells in the urine sediment, anemia with reticulocytosis and an increase in the level of indirect bilirubin in the blood serum are detected.

When does hemoglobin or myoglobin appear in the urine (hemoglobinuria)?

Hemolytic anemia.
- Severe poisoning (sulfonamides, phenol, aniline dyes,
- After an epileptic seizure.
- Transfusion of incompatible blood group.
-
- Sepsis.
- Severe injuries.

Microscopy of urinary sediment.

In urinary sediment, organized sediment is distinguished (cellular elements, cylinders, mucus, bacteria, yeast fungi) and unorganized (crystalline elements).
Red blood cells.

Norm: dogs, cats - 1 – 3 red blood cells in the field of view.
Everything above is hematuria.

Highlight:
- gross hematuria (when the color of urine is changed);
- microhematuria (when the color of urine is not changed, and red blood cells are detected only under a microscope).

In urinary sediment, red blood cells can be unchanged or changed. The appearance of altered red blood cells in the urine is of great diagnostic importance, because they are most often of renal origin. Unchanged red blood cells are more likely to cause damage to the urinary tract (urolithiasis, cystitis, urethritis).

When does the red blood cell count increase (hematuria)?

Urolithiasis disease.
- Tumors of the genitourinary system.
- Glomerulonephritis.
- Pyelonephritis.
- Infectious diseases of the urinary tract (cystitis, tuberculosis).
- Kidney injury.
- Poisoning with derivatives of benzene, aniline, snake venom, anticoagulants, poisonous mushrooms.

Leukocytes.

Norm: dogs, cats - 0–6 leukocytes in the field of view.

When does the white blood cell count increase (leukocyturia)?

Acute and chronic glomerulonephritis, pyelonephritis.
- Cystitis, urethritis, prostatitis.
- Stones in the ureter.
- Tubulointerstitial nephritis.

Epithelial cells.

Norm: dogs and cats – single or absent.

Epithelial cells have different origins:
- squamous epithelial cells (washed off with night urine from the external genitalia);
- transitional epithelial cells (lining the mucous membrane of the bladder, ureters, pelvis, large ducts of the prostate gland);
- cells of the renal (tubular) epithelium (lining the renal tubules).

When does the number of epithelial cells increase?

Cell enhancement squamous epithelium has no significant diagnostic value. It can be assumed that the patient was not properly prepared for the test collection.

Cell enhancement transitional epithelium:
- intoxication;
- intolerance to anesthesia, medicines, after operations;
- jaundice of various etiologies;
- urolithiasis (at the moment of stone passage);
- chronic cystitis;

Appearance of cells renal epithelium:
- pyelonephritis;
- intoxication (taking salicylates, cortisone, phenacetin, bismuth preparations, poisoning with heavy metal salts, ethylene glycol);
- tubular necrosis;

Cylinders.

Norm: dogs and cats are absent.

The appearance of casts (cylindruria) is a symptom of kidney damage.

When and what cylinders appear in general analysis urine (cylindruria)?

Hyaline casts are found in all organic kidney diseases, their number depends on the severity of the condition and the level of proteinuria.

Grain cylinders:
- glomerulonephritis;
- pyelonephritis;
- kidney cancer;
- diabetic nephropathy;
- infectious hepatitis;
- osteomyelitis.

Waxy cylinders indicate severe kidney damage.

Leukocyte casts:
- acute pyelonephritis;
- exacerbation of chronic pyelonephritis;
- kidney abscess.

Red blood cell casts:
- kidney infarction;
- embolism;
- acute diffuse glomerulonephritis.

Pigment cylinders:
- prerenal hematuria;
- hemoglobinuria;
- myoglobinuria.

Epithelial casts:
- acute renal failure;
- tubular necrosis;
- acute and chronic glomerulonephritis.

Fat cylinders:
- chronic glomerulonephritis and pyelonephritis complicated by nephrotic syndrome;
- lipoid and lipoid-amyloid nephrosis;
- diabetic nephropathy.

Bacteria.

Fine urine in the bladder is sterile. The detection of bacteria in a urine test of more than 50,000 in 1 ml indicates an infectious lesion of the urinary system (pyelonephritis, urethritis, cystitis, etc.). The type of bacteria can only be determined through bacteriological examination.

Yeast fungi.

The detection of yeast of the genus Candida indicates candidiasis, which most often occurs as a result of irrational antibiotic therapy, the use of immunosuppressants, and cytostatics.

Determining the type of fungus is possible only through bacteriological examination.

Slime.

Mucus is secreted by the epithelium of the mucous membranes. Normally absent or present in urine in small quantities. During inflammatory processes in the lower parts of the urinary tract, the mucus content in the urine increases.

Crystals (disorganized sediment).

Urine is a solution of various salts, which can precipitate (form crystals) when the urine stands. The presence of certain salt crystals in the urinary sediment indicates a change in the reaction towards the acidic or alkaline side. Excessive salt content in urine contributes to the formation of stones and the development of urolithiasis.

When and what kind of crystals appear in a general urine test?
- Uric acid and its salts (urates): can normally be found in Dalmatians and English bulldogs; in dogs of other breeds and cats they are associated with liver failure and porosystemic anastomoses.
- Tripelphosphates, amorphous phosphates: often found in slightly acidic or alkaline urine in healthy dogs and cats; may be associated with cystitis.

Calcium oxalate:

Severe infectious diseases;
- pyelonephritis;
- diabetes;
- ethylene glycol poisoning;

Cystine:

Cirrhosis of the liver;
- viral hepatitis;
- state of hepatic coma
- Bilirubin: may occur in healthy dogs with concentrated urine or due to bilirubinuria.