BASALT, a ceramic material with high mechanical, physical, electrical and chemical properties and obtained by thermal processing of rocks of the same name.
1. Basalt as a rock. Basalt, or rather basalts, are among the characteristic igneous (effusive) basic rocks of deep origin and young, predominantly Tertiary, age. Basalt gained its wide popularity for the picturesque fragments it forms in the form of 6-sided (and sometimes 3- or 5-sided) prisms 3-4 m long with planes perpendicular to the faces (Fig. 1); it is also found in the form of limestone natural stairs, shell-shaped spherical parts and other extremely picturesque rocks.
Basalt is a dark-colored rock, sometimes grayish-black, sometimes with a bluish tint; sometimes it is greenish or reddish. The very name "basalt" is of ancient origin and in the Ethiopian language means "dark", "black". This breed is very homogeneous in its fine build. Dense and extremely hard, it has in different occasions graininess of different order. Coarse- and medium-grained varieties are called dolerites, fine-grained varieties are called anamesites, and very fine-grained varieties are called basalt proper. The difference in texture of basalt with identical bulk composition is explained by the conditions of solidification of igneous magma (cooling rate, pressure, etc.). The petrographic composition of basalt can vary significantly, but the minerals that make up the basalt are replaced by petrographic equivalents, as a result of which basalt as a rock retains its habitus very steadily. Under the microscope, basalt appears as a glassy groundmass (“basis”) with a microfluidic composition. The basis contains numerous crystals of feldspar, olivine, magnetic iron ore and other less typical minerals. Depending on the content of mineral inclusions cemented by the basis, basalts are distinguished: plagioclase, leucite, nepheline and melilite. Actually, it is customary to call the first basalt, that is, those containing calcareous-soda feldspar, augite and olivine. Basalt is chemically related to gabbro (G.) and diabase (D.). The bulk chemical analysis of plateau-forming basalt is characterized, according to Washington, by the following data:
Basalt is inherent in significant radioactivity: it contains from 0.46∙10 -3 to 1.52∙10 -3% of thorium and from 0.77∙10 -10 to 1.69∙10 -10% of radium. Less deep varieties of basalt are more acidic and gradually pass to dacites, trachytes, etc. According to the latest views, basalt is a material that forms a solid shell of the earth: under the continents 31 km thick, and under the oceans - from 6 km or more; this shell floats on a viscous-liquid underlying layer of basalt ("substrate"). Thus, it is assumed that basalt is everywhere. As for the very surface of the earth, the outcrops of this rock are very numerous. Outside the USSR, they are: in the Auvergne, along the banks of the Rhine, in Bohemia, Scotland and Ireland, on the island of Iceland, in the Andes, in the Antilles, on the island of St. Helena and in various other areas. There are many deposits of basalt in the northern, western and southeastern parts of Mongolia. Within the USSR, basalt is distributed in the Caucasus and Transcaucasia, as well as in northern Siberia, in the basin of the river. Vitim. In the near future, the following deposits may practically be of the greatest interest: Berestovetskoye - Volynsk district of the Ukrainian SSR, Isachkovsky - Poltava district of the Ukrainian SSR, Mariupol - Mariupol district of the Ukrainian SSR, Chiaturskoye, Beloklyuchinskoye, Manglisskoye and Saganlugskoye, Adjaris-Tskhalskoye - Georgian SSR, Erivanskoye - Armenian SSR, as well as Olonets diabase from the shores of Lake Onega.
2. Properties of natural basalt. The direct use of natural basalt and its further processing require sufficient knowledge of its mechanical, physical and chemical properties. However, these properties are significantly related to the composition and texture of basalt and therefore vary significantly depending on the deposit. If we talk about basalt in general, then its properties can be. are characterized only by the limits of the corresponding constants. The data given below for basalt are partly compared with the data for diabase and gabbro. Apparent specific gravity(piece): 2.94-3.19 (B.), 3.00 (D.), 2.79-3.04 (G.). The true specific gravity (powder) is about 3.00 (B.). Porosity in % volume: 0.4-0.5 (B.), 0.2-1.2 (D.), 3.0 (G.). Water absorption: 0.2-0.4% by weight and 0.5-1.1% by volume (B.). The mass of 1 m 3 of dry basalt is about 3 tons. Compressive strength in kg / cm 2: 2000-3500 (B.), 1800-2700 (D.), 1000-1900 (G.). If the compressive strength of dry basalt is more than 3000, then wet basalt is more than 2500, and at a frost of 25 ° it is more than 2300. Wear strength (“hardness”, calculated by the formula: p \u003d 20-w / 3, where w is the mass, lost under normalized conditions at 1000 revolutions of the abrasive disk) is characterized by the numbers 18-19 (B., D., G.). Impact strength (“compactness”) when testing normalized samples: 6-30 (B., D.) and 8-22 (G.). Basalt is harder than steel. Young's modulus in (D cm -2) x10 -11 is 11 (G.) and 9.5 (D.). The volumetric compression ratio per 1 kg at a pressure of 2000 kg / cm 2 is 0.0000018 (B.) and 0.0000012 (D.), and at a pressure of 10000 kg / cm 2 it is 0.0000015 (B.) and 0.0000012 (D.). The beginning of melting of normal olivine basalt is at a temperature of about 1150°, and the liquid-melting state begins at a temperature of about 1200°. Molten rock ceases to be fluid when cooled to 1050°. More acidic rocks have a higher melting point, and it rises with the content of silicic acid. In particular, the basalt of the Adzharis-Tskhali deposit (dacite-basalt - according to Abih or trachyandesite - according to new definitions) softens at 1180°, has the consistency of thick honey at 1260°, and completely liquefies at 1315° (experiments of the author in the Department of Materials Science of the GEEI). Specific heat capacity of Syracuse basalt for different temperatures shown in the following table:
The heat of crystallization of basalt during the transition from an amorphous state to a crystalline state 130 Cal. During crystallization, the volume decreases by 12% compared with the volume of basalt at a temperature of 1150°. The specific thermal conductivity of basalt in gram-calories is about 0.004. Thermal expansion coefficient of basalt: 0.0000063 (at 20-100°), 0.000009 (at 100-200°) and 0.000012 (at 200-300°).
In chemical terms, basalts are resistant rocks: atmospheric agents, in Gary's experiments, weathered from 1.5 to 0.8 mg / cm 2 of basalt in 18 months, while gray limestone lost 22.7 mg / cm 2 under the same conditions. The process of weathering of basalt and diabase is presented by a comparative diagram (Fig. 2).
The number on the upper horizontal line shows the number of grams of weathered rock that must be taken so that it contains the component corresponding to the designation of the horizontal in question, as much as this part is contained in 100 g of fresh rock. That. all points to the right of the vertical 100 mean depletion of the corresponding part, and those to the left - enrichment. Consequently, during weathering, basalt is enriched in silica and alumina and becomes poorer in alkalis, alkaline earths and iron in all forms, while diabase is enriched in oxide iron and sodium. This circumstance speaks, apparently, against diabase as an insulating material.
3. Bases for processing basalt. The properties of natural basalt make it an excellent building material, more durable than granite. Basalt has been used for a long time. However, the extreme difficulty of processing basalt and dividing it into relatively narrow prisms forced us to come up with a special way of giving it geometric shapes.
It was natural to think about the fusion of this rock, since it itself is of fiery origin. But it is not enough to melt basalt: upon rapid cooling, castings from it give a vitreous mass similar to natural hyalobasalts, fragile and technically inapplicable (Figs. 3 and 4).
The main task of basalt production is the restoration of fine-grainedness in remelted basalt, the so-called regeneration (Fig. 5).
The idea of the possibility of remelting and restoration in original form rocks arose in the 18th century. Already in 1801, the Scot James Goll achieved the remelting of basalt and, in particular, established that basalt and lavas, being melted and quickly cooled, give glass, while when they are slowly cooled, a stony mass is obtained, with traces of a crystalline structure; this is the basic position of the fiery processing of lavas. Particularly remarkable are the experiments of the Scot Gregory Watt, who expanded the scale of smelting. The melting of a block of basalt more than 3 tons lasted 6 hours, and cooling under the cover of slowly burning coal took 8 days. Watt described the products of this slow cooling: black glass on the surface; as they deepen into the frozen mass, grayish balls appear, grouped into bundles; then the structure becomes radiant; even deeper, the substance has a stony and then granular character, and, finally, the mass is penetrated by crystalline plates. That. the possibility of melting and regenerating igneous rocks was found out. But due to the lack of a sufficiently large need for remelted basalt for industry, the described experiments were forgotten. In 1806 Dobré and then in 1878 F. Fouquet and Michel Levy returned to the smelting and regeneration process. They managed to reproduce almost all rocks of fiery origin and found out that this does not require either extreme temperatures or mysterious agents, but the whole point is to establish the proper regime of melting and annealing. After cooling, the molten silicate turns into glass, the melting point of which is lower than the melting point of the original mineral. To restore the latter, it is necessary to anneal the vitreous mass at a temperature exceeding the melting point of the vitreous body, but lying below the melting point of the crystalline mineral. The temperature range of these melting points is the area in which the regeneration of silicate or aluminosilicate is possible; this interval m. b. pretty insignificant. When it is not a matter of one mineral, but of a combination of 5-6 minerals that make up a crystalline rock, then the annealing regime would have to be set with a number of steps, and each mineral would have its own stoppage of the cooling progress. However, in practice, these steps are so close to each other that we can limit ourselves to two stops. In relation to basalt, the first annealing, with a red-white glow, gives the crystallization of ferrous oxide and peridot, and the second, with cherry-red, crystallization of other minerals of the rock.
The first experiments in the industrial smelting of basalt were undertaken in 1909 by Ribb, and various applications for smelted basalt were found by engineer L. Dren. In 1913, for the industrial implementation of smelting processes, the Compagnie generate du Basalte was formed in Paris, and in Germany - Der Schmelzbasalt A.-G., in Linz on the Rhine; then both societies united under the common name "Schmelzbasalt A.-G.", or "Le Basalte Fondu". Currently in France there are two plants that produce Ch. arr. electrical and building products, and in Germany one serving the chemical industry.
4. Production of melted basalt. Breaking. The occurrence of basalt is different, and therefore its breaking is not always uniform. Slab-like basalt of mantles or rocks is quarried by blasting. Prisms of columnar basalt can be separated by means of wedges and levers. Development is carried out in tiers, removing successive layers in rows of natural bundles.
Splitting up . Broken basalt is stored on outdoors. For smelting, it is crushed in Black or Getz crushers. Then the pieces are sorted by size, and the fines go to the concrete masses.
Remelting. Crushed basalt enters the smelting furnaces, which use various methods of heating. The most suitable ovens are electric, gas (gas generating or with lighting gas) and ovens with oil burners. The electrosmelting plant consists of a fixed electrode furnace and a mobile receiver on wheels, which serves to transport the molten basalt to the casting workshop; this receiver also represents a small electrode furnace. Both types of ovens are powered by two-phase current. The bottom of the furnace is made of refractory material and has a nozzle on the side for discharging the molten mass, while from the receiver it descends into molds or molds for casting by simply tilting the receiver. In other furnaces, the throat is made inclined, so that the loading of the hearth and the descent of the molten mass are carried out in a continuous process. The productivity of the described furnaces is from 3 to 50 tons per day. The Paris plant - of a large-scale handicraft type - has 4 furnaces with a capacity of 80 kg each, operating continuously and heated by city gas; melting is carried out at 1350°. Another French plant, in Puy, runs on electricity. Continuous production capacity - 8 tons per day.
Casting. The molten basalt is poured into molds or molds directly from the furnaces or taken to the casting shops. For casting, either sand trusses or steel molds are used. The first ones are much cheaper, but not applicable in all cases, because the products come out of them dull and rough. Steel molds give products a shiny surface, but are relatively expensive. With careful casting, the casting is clean; otherwise, streaks and irregularities are visible, which in many cases do not prevent, however, the use of the product.
Heat treatment. Almost immediately after casting, the products, still cherry-red, are removed from the molds and transferred to annealing hearth furnaces, similar to ordinary hardening ones. Depending on their purpose and size, the products are aged in the oven from several hours to several days. The initial annealing temperature is about 700°. The oven is covered and slowly cooled; languishing in the furnace lasts, depending on the size of the products and their required qualities, from several hours to 10-14 days. There are up to 35 such ovens at the Paris plant.
Finishing . After cooling, the products are ready for use. To give them a proper look, they are cleaned with steel brushes. If greater accuracy of planar faces is required, then finishing is carried out on circles having a basalt base.
production cost. The production of fused basalt does not require highly skilled labor or expensive equipment. The main costs of production in our conditions are for the delivery of material, if it is brought from the Caucasus, and for energy. When working with gas, 1 kg of finished basalt products requires about 900 Cal, i.e., about 1/4 - 1/3 m 3 of gas; when working with electrical energy, approximately 1 kWh is consumed per 1 kg of products. That. the cost of basalt products, for example, insulators, is much lower than porcelain. In France, the selling price of basalt insulators is 10-15% less than porcelain, and for larger ones - 25-30%. The larger the products, the greater the price discrepancy between basalt and porcelain. However, there are reasons to consider the above discrepancies in selling prices to be significantly underestimated due to the increase in the profit of basalt production as a new business.
Production of smelted basalt in the USSR. With enormous technical and economic advantages behind it, and in some cases, as in the electrification of railways, being almost indispensable, the basalt industry attracted the attention of technical and industrial circles. Experiments with the smelting of basalt and other rocks, undertaken on behalf of the Glavelectro VSNKh in the Department of Materials Science of the GEEI and then at the State Electrotechnical Institute, experiments on the smelting of diabase in the Mining and Metallurgical Laboratory and the interest of the Supreme Economic Council of Georgia and Armenia in this industry can be considered harbingers of the rapid development of basalt business. From an economic point of view, b. a very favorable natural combination of favorable factors was noted: the possibility of extracting basalt very often territorially coincides with the availability of sources of hydroelectric energy for its processing, i.e. with a regional power plant, which requires basalt insulators, and with centers of electrochemical production that need fire and acid-resistant basalt equipment. The indicated coincidence, in connection with the profitability of small basalt plants and the comparative high cost of transport, gives reason to foresee in the future a network of small basalt plants throughout the country.
5. Properties of processed basalt. Melted and regenerated basalt generally has the properties of natural, but in an improved form (see Fig. 3 and 5).
Mechanical properties: a) compressive strength - about 3000 kg / cm 2; b) wear resistance, tested with a Derry mill, powdered with sand, was found to be 0.9 mm average after 1000 revolutions; c) having a high viscosity, basalt does not break easily, and basalt insulators and other products can practically be considered unbreakable. Compared to porcelain, basalt is 2-4 times less brittle; various meanings this value depends on the annealing mode; the presence of impurities brittleness m. highly elevated; d) tensile strength was tested on basalt supports for the third bus of electrical railways. and for comparison, the same sandstone supports were tested; rupture of basalt products was observed at 3700-4700 kg, and the rupture of the same sandstone products - at 1200 kg.
Thermal properties: a) remelted basalt resists temperature changes, even abrupt ones; a plate of basalt 8 mm thick, immersed alternately in boiling water and cold, did not show any signs of cracking; insulators exposed to the sun and then exposed to a thunderstorm, as well as insulators tested according to the rules of the French Union of Electrical Syndicates (sudden transfer from water at 65 ° to water at 14 °), showed no change in electrical properties; the upper limit of the thermal interval can be further increased; b) at the moment of solidification, basalt allows for stamping or other introduction of iron parts of any volume into it and adheres firmly to them without requiring cementing; c) basalt endures significant heating without revealing breaks, cracks, "fatigue" or "aging"; d) due to its low thermal conductivity, basalt can serve as a thermal insulator.
Hygroscopicity. Being quite compact and doused with autogenous glaze, basalt is quite waterproof and non-hygroscopic.
Electrical Properties: a) basalt has a significant electrical strength: for bridge basalt, it turned out to be about 32 kV / cm with a plate thickness of 18 mm, and for special electrical basalt, both heat-treated and vitrified, it turned out to be from 57 to 62 kV / cm with the same thickness; b) when a breakdown occurs and a powerful arc is formed, the basalt insulator is still not damaged by this, because after the arc stops, the place of the breakdown swims, and the insulator heals without a trace; c) basalt insulators, when processed, are covered by themselves with glass-like basalt glaze 1.5-2 mm thick, gradually turning inward to granular basalt; this glaze is an excellent barrier to surface electrical leakage and protects insulators and other products from hygroscopicity and from the action of atmospheric agents; having a composition identical to the composition of the insulator itself, the glaze adheres to it as a homogeneous body and therefore is not in danger of cracking or peeling off. In addition, when this glaze is forcibly damaged, a substance of the same composition is exposed, so that the indicated damage is not fatal for the insulator.
Chemical properties. In chemical terms, basalt products, according to French information, are very stable; in table. 1 provides data on the effect of various reagents on processed basalt.
Data from further tests are given in table. 2.
Appearance . Remelted, but not annealed, basalt resembles glass: it has a brilliant fracture, brown-black color and is fragile. After annealing, remelted basalt gets black or dark color, matte fine-grained fracture and toughness of natural rock. The external appearance of the products depends on the material of the mold and the mold (see paragraph 4).
So, in terms of mechanical strength, thermal and chemical resistance, high and unique electrical properties, cheapness and relatively easy workability, processed basalt should be recognized as one of the most remarkable materials in electrical engineering.
6. Application of recycled basalt. The basalt industry is still too young to foresee all the uses of the new material at present. So far, the following have been outlined: a) in networks of strong currents of high and low voltage - linear insulators in the open air (Fig. 6),
support insulators, insulators of the third bus of electrical railways. etc. and subways (Fig. 7), output insulators at high voltage;
b) in low current networks and in radio communications - telegraph and telephone insulators, pull insulators and other insulating parts for antennas; c) in the electrochemical industry - insulating stands for batteries, dishes, bathtubs, etc.; d) in the general chemical industry - acid-resistant equipment, including all kinds of dishes, bathtubs, taps, propellers, etc., equipment for temperatures up to 1000 °; e) in construction - insulating bridges (Fig. 8), bridges, stairs, wall and floor cladding, especially when there are acidic vapors, etc.
Line insulators. In view of the exceptional interest of basalt in electrical engineering, we present test data at the Paris Central Electrical Laboratory of ten insulators with iron pins embedded in them, five of which were previously subjected to a thermal test (see paragraph 5). During a dry test, the first sparks sliding over the insulator appeared at 32.5-38 kV, the arc formed at 35-43 kV, the skirt was broken at 40 kV, and the necks at 37.5-39.5 kV. A wet test under artificial rain produced an arc at 18-20 kV followed by 30 sec. the insulator broke. An oil test established the breakdown voltage at 35-58 kV. The test of pull insulators with alternating voltage, which was raised before the breakdown and then, immediately after the breakdown, began to be raised again until a new breakdown, and so 4 times, gave the results presented in Table. 3.
Telegraph type insulators. A test of high-current basalt insulators, similar to telegraph ones, was carried out at the Moscow Scientific Testing Telegraph Station, and the surface electrical resistance of basalt insulators was found to be significantly higher than that of the corresponding porcelain insulators; but when tested in the rain, the resistance of basalt recovered somewhat more slowly than that of porcelain. This probably depended on the rough surface of the high current insulators tested, for which telegraphy requirements were not taken into account.
7. Other uses of basalt. In addition to the use of natural basalt as a building material and crushed stone, and the use of thermally processed basalt in various industries, basalt and related rocks are also used as an integral part in ceramic and glass production. Thus, Borjomi andesite has been used for several years in the manufacture of glass for bottles for Borjomi mineral water, giving it strength and dark color. The English porcelain factory of Wedgwood has long been producing earthenware with a black, unglazed in mass and easily polished shard, the so-called. "Basalt" (Basalt) or "Egyptian" (Egyptian), - the mass for it contains basalt.
The average chemical composition of basalt according to P. Daly (%): SiO 2 - 49.06; TiO 2 - 1.36; Al 2 O 3 - 15.70; Fe 2 O 3 - 5.38; FeO - 6.37; MgO - 6.17; CaO - 8.95; Na 2 O - 3.11; K 2 O - 1.52; MnO - 0.31; P2O5 - 0.45; H 2 O - 1.62. The content of SiO 2 in basalt ranges from 44 to 53.5%. According to the chemical and mineral composition, olivine unsaturated with silica (SiO 2 about 45%) basalts and olivine-free or slightly saturated with silica (SiO 2 about 50%) tholeiitic basalts are distinguished.
The physical and mechanical properties of basalt are very different, which is explained by different porosity. Basalt magmas, having low viscosity, are easily mobile and are characterized by a variety of occurrence forms (covers, flows, dikes, reservoir deposits). Basalt is characterized by columnar, less often spherical separation. Olivine basalts are known at the bottom of the oceans, oceanic islands (Hawaii), and are widely developed in folded belts. Tholeiitic basalts occupy vast areas on platforms (trap formations of Siberia, South America, and India). Deposits of ores of iron, nickel, platinum, and Icelandic spar (Siberia) are associated with rocks of the trap formation. A deposit of native copper is known in the amygdaloidal basalt porphyrites of the Lake Superior region in the USA.
The density of basalt is 2520-2970 kg/m³. Porosity coefficient 0.6-19%, water absorption 0.15-10.2%, compressive strength 60-400 MPa, abrasion 1-20 kg/m², melting point 1100-1250°C, sometimes up to 1450°C, specific heat capacity 0.84 J/kg K at 0°C, Young's modulus (6.2-11.3) 104 MPa, shear modulus (2.75-3.46) 104 MPa, Poisson's ratio 0.20-0, 25. The high strength of basalt and relatively low temperature melting led to its use as a building stone and raw material for stone casting and mineral wool. Basalt is widely used to obtain crushed stone, road (side and paving stones) and facing stones, acid-resistant and alkali-resistant material. Industry requirements for the quality of basalt as a raw material for crushed stone are the same as for other igneous rocks. For the production of mineral wool, basalt is usually used in blending. It has been established that the melting temperature of the raw material should not exceed 1500°C, and the chemical composition of the melt is regulated by the following limits (%): SiO 2 - 34-45, Al 2 O 3 - 12-18, FeO up to 10, CaO - 22-30, MgO - 8-14, MnO - 1-3. Basalt stone casting materials have great chemical resistance, hardness and abrasion resistance, high dielectricity, and are used in the form of floor and cladding slabs, pipeline linings, cyclones, as well as various insulators.
The physical and mechanical properties of basalts and andesite-basalts are very heterogeneous. This is due to the diversity of the mineral composition, structure and texture of the rocks. Thus, microcrystalline basalts have a specific gravity of up to 3.3 T/m3, a bulk density of up to 3.0 T/m3, and a compressive strength of up to 5000 kg/cm2, while in porous basalts, the compressive strength may be less than 200 kg/m3. cm2. Ancient paleotype effusive rocks are also characterized by high variability in strength and deformation properties, but in general they have higher values of these indicators. This is explained by the crystallization volcanic glass, filling of pores with secondary minerals and other post-magmatic transformations of erupted rocks. Interesting data on the relationship between the strength of andesite-basalts and their composition, structure and porosity are given by N.V. Ovsyannikov, which shows that the strength of andesite-basalts significantly depends on the mineralogical composition.
Olivine varieties have the greatest strength, and augite varieties have the least. Equally important is the structure of the breed. Andesite-basalts of the same composition with a vitrophyric groundmass structure have a significantly lower strength than rocks with an intersertal structure. The studies of V. M. Ladygin and L. V. Shaumyan made it possible to establish that basalts of different petrochemical composition and structure have different physical and mechanical properties. The most durable are massive unaltered porphyritic basalts with microdiabase and microdolerite structure. Their average strength is 2000 kg/cm2, reaching in some cases 2800 kg/cm2 with a bulk density of 2.80 g/cm3. The dynamic modulus of elasticity of rocks in the massif is on average 690 103 kg/cm2. In amygdaloidal basalts, the influence of the structural and mineralogical features of the rock is offset by the presence of amygdales, the content of which reaches 15–30%. They are characterized by relatively low values of strength (1200 kg/cm2), elastic modulus (480 103 kg/cm2) and bulk density (2.66 G/cm3). It has been established that an increase in the content of denitrified glass to 10-15% reduces the strength of basalts by 10-20%, the presence of tonsils in the amount of 10-20% has the same effect. In weathered rock varieties, the strength decreases sharply. The degree of weathering of basalt rocks and the thickness of the weathering crust generally depend on their age and climatic conditions.
Basalt - an analogue of gabbro - is the most common outflowing rock; depending on the formation conditions, it has a glassy or cryptocrystalline structure. The color of basalt is dark gray to black. In terms of physical and mechanical parameters, basalt is similar to gabbro, and even surpasses it in strength (Lf reaches 500 MPa). Basalts are very hard but brittle rocks, making them difficult to work with.
Application of basalt
Practical application of basalt Construction Materials, made from this stone, are widely used in construction, because they are inherent in: resistance to abrasion, to the influence of alkalis and acids, excellent thermal insulation and sound absorption, strength, heat resistance and fire resistance, high dielectricity, durability, vapor permeability and, no less important, environmental friendliness.
This mineral is used as a building stone, for the production of mineral wool, a filler for concrete and stone casting. Road and facing stones are also made from it, crushed stone and acid-resistant powder are obtained. Facing plates on this moment simultaneously with a decorative purpose, they perform the function of insulators. Thanks to its resistance to weathering, basalt is well suited for finishing the exterior of buildings, as well as for casting street sculptures.
The production of basalt and products based on it is most often the production of basalt is a mining industry. In special quarries and mines, stone is mined, on the basis of which various products are subsequently produced. In the form of basalt fiber, this mineral is used for insulation of buildings and roofs, in three-layer sandwich panels, insulation of low-temperature equipment units during nitrogen extraction and creation of oxygen columns, for heat and sound insulation of pipelines, stoves, fireplaces and other braziers, power units and in general buildings and structures for any purpose. Basalt in molten form is used to create stairs, shaped tiles and other building materials. Apparatuses of arbitrary shapes are cast from it, including battery stands, as well as insulators for networks with voltages of various sizes. Powder from such material is used for the production of pressed reinforced products.
Common types of basalt differ from each other in various indicators, primarily such as color and structure. The most famous brand is a variety called "Basaltina". This is a material of Italian origin, which is mined near the capital of this country and has been used mainly for architectural purposes since the time of Ancient Rome. Its strength is comparable to that of granite, and its decorative qualities are comparable to those of limestone. The stone after laying retains the saturation of the color palette for a long time. Therefore, its cost often exceeds the price of other brands by more than twice.
Another variety is Asian. It is distinguished by a dark gray color and a reasonable price. It is widely used for design and architectural purposes.
Moorish green basalt has a rich dark green hue, with various inclusions present in it, which give the stone an original appearance while maintaining all physical and mechanical characteristics. Only the criteria for hardness and frost resistance are somewhat lower.
Twilight basalt is brought from China. It has a smoky gray or black color. It is recognized as the strongest and wear-resistant and frost-resistant among all varieties of this mineral. It is well protected from adverse weather conditions.
The most famous basalt products are: basalt-based insulation, basalt finishing tiles, basalt chimneys for fireplaces and stoves.
Graphs
Fig.8 Lunar basalt: diagram
"Debye temperature of a chemical element (Q) - Concentration factor (K k)"
Fig.9 Lunar basalt: diagram
"Debye temperature of a chemical element (Q) - Content of a chemical element (C)"
Fig.10 Basalt: diagram
"Mass of an atom of a chemical element (M) - Content of a chemical element (C)"
Fig.11 Lunar basalt: diagram
"Mass of an atom of a chemical element (M) - Concentration coefficient (K k)"
Fig.12 Lunar basalt: diagram
"Distance to the inert gas of the chemical element (e) - Concentration factor (K k)"
Fig.13 Lunar basalt: diagram
"Distance to the inert gas of the chemical element (e) - Content of the chemical element (C)"
Annex A
Annex B
LITERATURE
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The basalt rock is a volcanic origin that appeared in the form of lavas. It is widespread, and its location is at the bottom of the ocean. Basalt contains silica, magnesium and iron.
The origin of basalt includes three main types: underwater ridges of the oceans, erupting streams, and volcanoes, which are located on plate hotspots (tectonic).
The name of the mineral comes from the word "basal" (Ethiopia), which in translation is interpreted as red-hot or hot. And this is understandable, given where it is mined.
Field and production
As a rule, basalts are common among most volcanic rocks. If we consider the territory of Russia, then here the mineral is found in Kamchatka, the Khabarovsk Territory, Altai and Transbaikalia.
The largest locations are in Ukraine, India, Armenia, and Ethiopia. If we consider a more remote area, then the location of the mineral is Australia, Italy, South Africa and Greenland.
In its bulk, basalt is mined from volcanic lava flows. The upper layers found often have a bubbly surface, this is due to the fact that in the process of cooling, gases and vapors come out of it. After that, minerals existing in the area, such as copper, zeolite or calcium, are located in these holes.
Physical and chemical properties
The rock has basalt, a dense and granular structure. With regards to the texture, it is massive or porous. The edges of the rock are not even, broken. To the touch, the roughness of the stone is felt. On the Mohs scale, basalt is gaining from 5 to 7 hardness points.
- high resistance to wear and damage;
- long service life;
- environmental indicators;
- excellent characteristics of sound and heat insulation;
- fire resistance;
- resistance to alkalis and acids;
- the possibility of steam penetration (breeds are able to breathe);
- dielectricity, lightning protection.
From basalt rock, crushed stone, heat-insulating wool and a powder having a refractory quality are made. There are cases when the mineral is used during the manufacture of aggregate for concrete.
Due to the ability to melt, original sculptures are made from balsate, which are then installed on the streets of the city.
The production of the breed belongs to the mining industry. Extraction takes place in mines and quarries, after which, a variety of products are manufactured.
So, from liquid balsate, which subsequently hardens, they make: 
- stairs, steps;
- tiles for facade cladding;
- thermal insulation wool;
- reinforced products;
- insulators used for networks of various voltages;
- stands for batteries and other building materials.
Whoever once encountered the excellent characteristics of this rock knows for sure about all the advantages of products made from it. Basalt is famous for its resistance to high temperatures. But, alas, not everyone can afford to purchase it and carry out facade work from stone. That is why for connoisseurs of beauty, there are many other varieties of basalt, which are many times more affordable. However, in this case, you will have to sacrifice strength and other characteristics for which the stone is so famous.
Foreword
The economic value and significance of basalt on a national scale is so great that it is much more important and preferable for the state to find deposits of basalt than a deposit of precious metals.
Basalt deposits provide enterprises with raw materials from which basalt fiber and products based on it are produced, which are necessary for various industries, including energy, industry, civil and road construction, as well as create new jobs and increase the country's export opportunities. Continuous basalt fiber has high strength, durability and resistance to aggressive environments (solutions of salts, acids and alkalis), and also has good characteristics as electrical insulating materials.
In addition, basalt is characterized by high wear resistance, thermal stability, good potential as heat and noise insulation, and low hygroscopicity. With its top-notch features, including high quality, durability, resistance to natural factors, high temperatures and corrosive environments, resistance to vibration, and absolute non-flammability, basalt fiber compares very favorably with its competitors - materials made from glass and mineral fibers. That is why basalt fiber has very bright prospects for application in various industries.
Materials based on basalt fiber are made from natural raw materials. The energy costs and the main work for the production of source material, including the initial melt, enrichment and homogenization of basalt, was done at the expense of nature in the vent of an ancient volcano. The use of basalt can significantly reduce the amount of energy used to produce structural and reinforcing materials. Basalt deposits are the basis for creating an entire industry. In addition, sources of raw materials for the production of products and materials from continuous basalt fiber are located within reach and in practically unlimited quantities.
How is basalt mined?
An ore is a natural mineral formation that contains a sufficient concentration of useful minerals or metals to make the extraction and refining of the desired component economically viable. The ore is mined from mountains subjected to destruction due to atmospheric influences such as weathering, blowing and erosion. Ore minerals include gibbsite, limestone, basalt, copper, iron ore, and diaspore. Not only the types of ore mined differ, but also the technologies, quarry mechanisms and excavators that are required to extract it. So, how is basalt mined and how does basalt mining differ from the extraction of other minerals. First of all, you need to answer the question, what is basalt and what mechanisms are used to extract it?
Basalt is usually mined by open pit mining. The main part of basalt is used as crushed stone aggregate for concrete and asphalt pavement. As a rule, wells are drilled in the rock using a powerful electric drill, explosives are placed in the drilled hole and basalt ore is blown up. Special electric mechanisms throw aside the rock that has been beaten off by the explosion and load it into trolleys or onto a conveyor, which brings pieces of basalt to the crushing plant.
In terms of mining equipment for basalt mining, it is common to use a jaw crusher that breaks large stones and rock mills used in the next crushing step to produce smaller stone. The crushed rock is then sorted by size using a device known as a sieve. And at the end of the process, special lifting devices are used to lift the mined ore from the quarry.
Basalt is the main effusive rock of the normal series, as well as the most common of all cainotype rocks. Basalt can be easily recognized by appearance. Its color can be black, dark gray, when weathered, these stones become brown or green. Basalt has mineral composition. The most common accessory mineral is apatite.
The name of this stone comes from the Ethiopian word "basal", which can be translated as "boiled". This name was given to this stone because it is formed in hot volcanic vents, the temperature there can reach several thousand degrees.
Basalt stone is characterized by increased hardness, has a high density. The composition of basalt is dominated by calcium feldspar and its varieties. There are also impurities of olivine.
Initially basalts it was customary to classify them in one group along with many other similar breeds, but then they began to be distinguished separately. Basalt flows are characterized by columnar separation, while marine basalts are often pillow-shaped. Many basalts are entirely composed of mineral grains so small that they can only be diagnosed under a microscope. Basalts usually have a dense, porous structure; crystals cannot be seen without a microscope.
Sometimes the old Swedish name "trapp" is still used for basalts.
Basalt deposits
They are the most common igneous rocks on the surface of the Earth and other planets. Most of them are formed in the mid-ocean ridges. They form the oceanic crust. also forms extensive basaltic plateaus. These minerals are mined in open pits. Basalts are the main igneous rocks in the CIS. More than 200 deposits of basalt rocks are known, of which more than 50 deposits are exploited.
The formation of these minerals occurs during the solidification of basaltic magma, which pours out onto the earth's surface, moreover, we are also talking about the ocean floor. Basalts are very easily altered by hydrothermal processes. At the same time, they acquire a greenish or bluish color. The most intensive changes are those basalts that form at the bottom of the seas. The reason for this is their active interaction with sea water, which leads to a radical change in their composition.
The main deposits of this mineral are located in India, USA, Italy. On the territory of our country, basalts are actively mined in the Kuril Islands and Kamchatka. These stones are also mined in Altai, on the territory of Ukraine, in Iceland, Ireland and Scotland. Basalts are mined in Northern and Central Asia. The Hawaiian Islands in the USA are a large basalt island.
Application of basalt
Basalts are of the greatest interest as a raw material. Currently, this stone is widely used in construction, because basalt is quite resistant to weathering. It can be used for exterior decoration of buildings. It is also often used to make sculptures that are intended to be installed outdoors.
Basalt is chemically resistant and high strength. However, the use of basalts as a natural stone material is limited. These minerals, although they are hard, but they are easily split and well polished. The technical qualities of basalts differ depending on the place where they are mined, and they may differ even within the same deposit.
Not all basalts are equally suitable for use in construction. It depends on the degree of their granularity, the nature of the individual pieces and the degree of weathering. The finest and medium-grained varieties of basalt are considered the best in this regard. But coarse-grained varieties are not so good, because. they are more easily weathered.
Basalt chips and dust are used for the production of anti-corrosion coatings. Such coatings are highly resistant to alkalis, acids and other media. They are thermally insulating, fire resistant and soundproof.
The disadvantages of this mineral include its low degree of refractoriness. In addition, pavements paved with basalt, over time, become too smooth surface. However, the low refractoriness of basalt makes it indispensable for use in such industries as stone casting. melted with subsequent spraying, which makes it possible to obtain basalt fiber from it. This fiber is an excellent heat and sound insulating material. To melt basalt, it must first be finely crushed to form basalt chips.
Basalt building materials have good performance characteristics, due to which they are widely used in construction. Basalt is able to withstand temperatures over 1500 degrees Celsius. Therefore, it is often used as fire protection. It is resistant to alkalis and acids, as well as abrasion. Basalt is strong and durable, it absorbs noise and has thermal insulation properties. Another important quality of such material is its environmental friendliness, which is also very important in construction.
Widely used outdoors. It is used in the cladding of buildings, the design of bridges, fountains, underpasses and facades. At the same time, basalt is quite inexpensive, which contributes to its popularity. Basalt pillars are used in port facilities. Basalt is used in the form of crushed stone and paving stones in road construction. Basalt is also used as an aggregate for concrete. Basalt is one of the most durable building stones. People have been using it in construction since ancient times. So, numerous architectural monuments are made from it. Red Square in Moscow is paved basalt.
Healing properties of basalt
According to modern lithotherapists, basalts have some medicinal properties . It is generally accepted that this mineral combines all four elements. And these stones are especially well suited for use in stone therapy. This method of treatment has been known since ancient times in the East. And in our country, they began to practice it relatively recently, but this type of therapy is now quite popular with us and is offered by many massage parlors. Stone therapy not only helps to relax well, it also helps to strengthen immune system organism. This technique is based on the use of stones, the main of which is basalt. It is best to use dark gray and black rocks for this procedure. It is recommended to use basalts that contain olein.
Basalt has the ability to retain heat for a long time. Therefore, in thermal terms, it has the maximum effect on the human body.
The magical properties of basalt
The magical properties of basalt are still not well understood.. Therefore, there is no single practice of their application in this area. This mineral is believed to have male energy Yang, so it is most often customary to use it not as an independent mineral, but in combination with other stones.