Robert's explanatory dictionary defines memory as “the ability to retain and reproduce states of consciousness experienced in the past, and what is associated with them.” Like any mental process, the work of memory is very complex. To remember something, we leave aside other memories, which are instantly forgotten. In general, we forget more things than we remember. What really matters is the choice and quality of memories. We usually don't have any problems remembering exactly what we need. In fact, we should rather rejoice at our ability to forget a lot. People with phenomenal memories, for the most part, are not so happy: they would like not to remember a lot of things either! During normal memory functioning, a natural balance is maintained between remembering and forgetting. As Alexander Chase noted in his aphorism: “Memory is what we use to forget.” We'll soon see why this is so. Here we will consider a number of theoretical models that describe the memory mechanism from different sides. They all complement each other, and each of them adds something to our holistic understanding of mnestic processes.
Physiological models of memory
Anatomy
The structures responsible for memory are scattered throughout many areas of the brain, although of particular importance is an area called the hippocampus at the base of the temporal lobe of each hemisphere. If this area on one side of the brain is damaged, memory processes can still occur, but if it is damaged on both sides, memory function is seriously impaired.
Neurochemistry
The hippocampus contains large amounts of acetylcholine, which serves as a neurotransmitter. Neurotransmitters are chemicals that transmit signals from one neuron (nerve cell) to another. If there is not enough acetylcholine in the brain, memory impairment occurs. A rough analogy would be a car stopping due to a lack of gasoline. In such cases, doctors sometimes prescribe medications such as choline in the hope of restoring normal acetylcholine levels (and thereby memory), but the results of such treatments are unpredictable and often disappointing.
The second cause of memory disorders may be a metabolic disorder in the brain that develops in old age. Brain metabolism is maintained primarily by the oxidation of carbohydrates, which provides energy. Part of this energy is spent on the synthesis of acetylcholine.
Electrophysiology
Now it is possible to study mental activity by recording electrical currents arising in the brain in the form of an electroencephalogram (EEG). If the metabolism throughout the body slows down, as happens in old age, then there is also a weakening of the waves of electrical activity in the brain. It appears that the degree of this attenuation corresponds to the degree of development of brain disorders. Note, however, that there are significant individual differences, and they are more pronounced in older people than in younger people.
Psychological models of memory
Information processing (stimulus - response)
Information that we want to remember is processed in our head, which is called “encoding.” The information processing model is a stimulus-response model, in which a stimulus is an external signal perceived by our senses. The stimulus is registered and then “fitted” in a certain way into the system of memory traces. In the future, when a new stimulus appears, the response can occur taking into account the previously recorded information. In other words, every impression enters the brain through the senses: we see, hear, taste, smell or touch something. External stimuli constantly keep us awake. Knowing all this, you can greatly increase your chances of remembering something: you just need to strengthen the deliberately chosen stimuli that we are likely to encounter when we need to remember a given object, circumstance, etc. The stimulus-response system works as follows: the brain perceives a certain stimulus, this stimulus is registered in memory, and then some second stimulus or signal activates the mechanism for retrieving information about the first.
Degree of detail in coding
The more preliminary processing the information is subjected to, the more correctly it is recorded. A deep thought remains in the memory much longer than a fleeting or superficial judgment. Any new thought that has not yet been subjected to in-depth development should be recorded in writing: it has not yet been woven into the general fabric of your thoughts, has not been included in a certain context, and therefore is fragile and can easily be erased from memory. To improve the processing of new information, it is very important to establish mental connections and structure new information. To be more confident in remembering information, repetition is most often used. However, this method affects memory mechanically and superficially, and its benefits are perceptible only for a short time, unless it is supplemented with more complex mental operations that leave deeper and more orderly traces. This explains why children so easily forget what they have memorized without truly understanding the meaning and establishing a connection with real life, i.e. deep assimilation. In order to subject information to thorough processing and encode it for long-term storage, it is important to perform a number of mental operations: comment on new data, evaluate its significance, pose questions, compare and contrast with something. This development of a network of associations, both emotional and intellectual, increases the efficiency of memorization - you will see this later, after doing the appropriate exercises.
Along with this, the formation of memory traces significantly depends on mood and the environment. We tend to remember something we experienced in a certain environment when we find ourselves in it again. Memories of ancient times often arouse vivid emotions in us. Events that greatly worried us leave a deeper trace in our memory than events of a neutral nature. Each of us colors the stimuli coming from outside with our emotions and cultural context. As Hamlet says: “Nothing in itself is either good or bad, but our thought makes it so.” We constantly interpret the world around us: we perceive it, and then pass the information we receive through our own filters. That is why the testimonies of witnesses who observed the same incident vary so much. As psychologist Elizabeth Loftus noted, “we create our own memories,” giving them a form specific to our personality. Memory is a creative function, and our consciousness can take much more part in it than is usually the case in reality.
Time frames (dependencies and relationships)
Our lives take place within a time frame, and the same applies to our memories. Some impressions last only a few seconds or minutes, others last for months or years. As Edouard Herriot said: “Culture is what remains when everything
specific information has already been forgotten.” In reality, there seems to be some sort of selection process going on that separates what is meant to be remembered for the short term and what is meant to be retained for the long term. This selection can occur both unconsciously and with the participation of consciousness, if we pay special attention to certain stimuli and try to record in memory only that information that seems especially interesting to us. The inquisitive mind continually reflects, thus reinforcing old memories through new associations. It is precisely this continuous selection of information that our culture consists of: we represent what we have absorbed into the active register of our memory, accessible at any moment. Our “I” is what we think, say, do, eat, and all this together reflects both the state of our entire culture and our individuality.
Immediate (sensory) memory retains traces of impressions received in previous moments. It rarely worsens, since there is no need for a durable record, and the extraction of information occurs automatically and, moreover, almost simultaneously with the perception itself, so there is simply no time to forget. A good example of the use of such a process is typing on a typewriter. When reading text, a word is remembered only for the time required to reproduce it on the keyboard (usually less than a second); then it is forgotten, its place is taken by the next word, etc. It is interesting to note that in people suffering from amnesia, immediate memory is usually not impaired; Unfortunately, it cannot replace long-term memory.
Short-term memory retains information for approximately 5 seconds. This is operative (working) memory, which holds no more than seven elements - a kind of storage chamber with seven cells. It operates on the principle of a card index of links, with the help of which you can extract more detailed information. These seven cells can contain concepts or ideas that can in turn awaken associations and reminiscences. The contents of short-term memory are retained longer only through continuous repetition. An example of this is redialing a phone number when you can't get through to someone. You must mentally repeat the number until you dial it.
Both types of memory mentioned do not require complex thought processes, so they are superficial and sensitive to outside interference. If you are interrupted while you are typing a phrase or dialing a phone number, you will have to replay everything from the beginning.
Long-term memory requires longer procedures and complex mental operations. Its validity period can vary greatly. Information that is important to us is consciously recorded in long-term memory. This is called semantic encoding and involves putting new information being recorded into a specific context according to its meaning. Without long-term memory, learning would be impossible. Any new knowledge is in one way or another connected with what is already known; our mind here not only resorts to mechanical repetition, as in the case of short-term memorization, but seeks to establish connections and interpret new information in the light of existing old information. For example, when actors learn roles, they first carefully analyze the text, and then, on this basis, reproduce the scene, bringing into it their emotions, facial expressions and other elements of their culture. Clearly recording new knowledge in memory requires time, concentration and deep thought. Some people have a special gift for successfully organizing elements of information for better memorization, and those who are also observant easily use their imagination to find suitable associations. Unfortunately, most often this does not happen by itself, but you can learn this and thus improve your memory.
Storing information in memory
In his theory of memory, Plato used a metaphor: he compared memory to a wax tablet, the quality of which determines how well one can write on it. According to Plato, good or bad memory is given to us from birth. As was believed in the ancient world, human destiny is determined by the will of the gods and little can be changed about it. It is clear that with such ideas, memory was perceived as an innate gift. Plato did not explain what, from his point of view, could be “wax of good quality” or how all the memories recorded on it were brought together. However, in a world where oral tradition was very strong (before the invention of printing, peoples relied mainly on memory, passing on cultural heritage in the form of stories and ballads about historical events), Plato should have taken it for granted that the use of mnemonic devices - these supports for memory, which were widespread in those days.
In recent years, psychologists have placed special emphasis on models of memory structure in which, to facilitate subsequent retrieval of information, remembered elements are organized into an ordered system. It has been shown that the accessibility of information recorded in the brain depends on how our own thoughts were organized at the time it was recorded. It is now recognized that the successful structural design of ideas greatly facilitates the functioning of memory. Note that the ability to organize memorized material, as well as to concentrate attention, is not innate. Both are acquired as a result of training, and therefore at no age is it too late to start practicing and improving your skills. Gerontological research has shown that the French proverb “You can't teach an old dog new tricks” is not true: people can learn at any age. This can be seen in the example of many subjects over 55 years of age who were able to teach new thinking strategies, although the training itself took them a little more time than younger ones.
It is very important to understand how our memory works - thereby we will tear off the mystical veil from it. When we know why we remember something and forget something, many possibilities immediately open up. Plato's wax tablet metaphor is still interesting for its imagery, but these days some psychologists prefer to compare intelligence to a computer, thereby emphasizing the principles of memory. Both analogies complement each other. One might also think that all impressions, images, feelings and thoughts are recorded in the brain on the principle of copying documents: our mind is like a photographic plate and in many respects resembles Plato's wax tablet. I can imagine that the thousands of images perceived by our brain are classified by it with the efficiency of a computer. Considering the amount of information the brain accumulates, it's hard not to be amazed by this miraculous storage device. For most of us, throughout our lives, our memories are correctly “sorted” and their files are organized into a vast network with internal relationships. The brain categorizes memories in very practical ways based on the frequency with which they are used in life, and they rise closer to the conscious level or retreat into the unconscious accordingly.
For clarity, we illustrate this using a conditional model with a number of zones painted in different colors. Imagine a system of three layers. The upper layer is very close to the level of consciousness. It contains information useful in everyday life, which you need to refer to frequently. I personally see this layer as blue and clear as day. It is in it, for example, that our active spoken dictionary, constantly mentioned names, frequently dialed phone numbers, etc. are located. This is a very busy area from which the necessary certificates are constantly being issued. This is followed by other levels where information that we do not need as often is stored in an organized form.
The middle layer contains “passive” material, which we access less often. To extract information from here, one has to resort to auxiliary associations (including mnemonic devices). This second layer seems to me to be a rust-colored, quieter zone, where our memories, as if covered with rust, lie in peace. With age, as vital activity decreases, this second layer increases due to the decrease in the first. It is in this second layer that once learned foreign languages are stored, which we rarely use. I remember how awkward I felt during the first days of my internship in France, my homeland. Other words came to mind in English, and during the conversation there was not enough time to translate them. Many times I stumbled over words like “to focus” (to concentrate, in French - se concentrer, fixer), the French sound of which is unlike the English one, and therefore difficult to translate when speaking quickly, although I specially prepared for the use of these “tricky” words. French, which I no longer regularly used in the United States, fell into the background and was replaced by English, especially in a very specific area of my work. But since I understood the reasons for the difficulties that arose during translation, I did not needlessly scold myself. Instead of being tormented by remorse, I patiently waited for all the necessary knowledge to move from the rusty area to the blue, which eventually happened under the influence of the new environment and as a result of the repeated study and frequent use of various French terms.
The lowest layer is adjacent to the area of the unconscious. It seems gray to me, like some zone of the unknown. This is perhaps the largest of all three layers - after all, each of us registers millions of impressions in our minds from the day we are born.
Psychoanalysts argue that through an active process called repression, traces of unpleasant experiences move into this gray zone. This is why memories of traumatic situations (aggression, violence, etc.) are sometimes blocked in the memory. They, however, for the most part are not completely suppressed, but are only repressed into the gray zone in order to make room for other memories, which at the time are more relevant and therefore placed closer to the level of consciousness. With age, when the present is no longer so exciting, much more attention is paid to associations associated with the past. When they stop looking forward, they look back. This is why older people often remember events or experiences from twenty years ago better than what they ate for breakfast today. (However, if they ate something unusual like black caviar, you can bet they'll remember it!)
Memories of the distant past seem to be waiting to be awakened by a strong emotion, like Charles Perrault's Sleeping Beauty. We, like in the theater, need a prompter that would remind our consciousness of ancient events. Most often, such a prompter is some kind of sensory perception, which entails a sequence of images, words and sensations imprinted in memory in days long past. Such retrieval occurs according to the stimulus-response principle described at the beginning of this chapter. This is what is called involuntary recall, since the perception-stimulus acts unexpectedly for us.
There are plenty of examples of involuntary recall both in life and in literature. In Marcel Proust's "The Search for Lost Time" we find a classic example of such reminiscence. The author dipped a piece of biscuit into a cup of tea, and the moment the soaked piece touched his palate, he experienced something unusual: the present with all its boring gloominess disappeared, and he himself was filled with a joyful feeling. Straining his attention, he waited, trying to understand the reason for the change that had occurred. “Suddenly an old picture surfaced in my mind. This taste was the same as that of a small piece of sponge cake that my Aunt Leonie treated me to on Sunday mornings at Combray, after she dipped it in her herbal tea.” Connected in the depths of memory with its original context, this feeling pulled behind it a chain of images of a happy childhood. “The whole of Combray and its environs, everything that has appearance and solidity, gardens and cities, has spilled out of my cup of tea.”
Note that Marcel Proust had the patience to wait a few seconds until the brain restored the entire chain of diverse memories. Instead of dwelling on just the image of his aunt, the author facilitated further memory work by focusing on the sensation of taste and the pleasure it gave. The fullness of awareness played a decisive role here - thanks to it, there was enough time for the “manifestation” of memory traces. In such cases, the willingness to calmly immerse yourself in the past is also important: anxiety can block brain networks and make it difficult to retrieve information.
If you want to remember more details, freely surrender to your awakening feelings - and the memories will consistently emerge before your eyes. As you will learn in subsequent chapters, your consciousness can also play an active role in the processes of recording and retrieving memories. An awakened consciousness is a wonderful aid to memory, and it also gives a deeper satisfaction from contact with the world around you.
Memory is imperfect
No one can say whether nature is perfect or not. After all, to do this you need to cover such a volume of knowledge that it is impossible to be sure of its completeness and accuracy. Obviously, not everything “goes well in this best of possible worlds,” as Voltaire’s Candide once believed. Philosophy, religion and science teach us, however, that imperfections in nature (for example, earthquakes or epidemics) also play a role in the structure of the Universe. This also applies to the memory system. Its apparent disadvantage - the tendency to forget - has its own meaning and ultimately makes us happier, because memory primarily serves the needs of the current moment. We remember better what is important and pleasant for us and easily forget everything else, including unpleasant events. Sometimes we forget something really important to us, and this can lead to tragic consequences - for example, if we forget to turn off the gas. The whole question is this: do we store in memory all the events that happened to us, or only the most vivid ones, both good and bad? In recent years, the mechanisms of both memory storage and forgetting have been intensively studied in the hope of understanding how accidents occur and why eyewitness testimony is so unreliable. According to Elizabeth Loftus, memories are pre-sorted in the brain and subsequently only those that have been properly processed in long-term memory are stored. In Fig. Figure 2.1 schematically shows the possible fate of information in the brain. Information received from the outside world enters short-term memory, where it can be stored through repetition, and then transferred to long-term memory or completely forgotten. In the process of transferring for long-term storage, information undergoes processing, which consists of its ordering - complex structuring with the participation of our entire personality.
Recent studies have shown that memory traces are constantly undergoing changes: reality is distorted, we “correct” it with each repeated recall. Loftus explains why memory can deceive us: “The fact is that very often we do not see things as they really are. Even if we quite accurately record past events in memory, the resulting traces do not remain unchanged - they are subject to extraneous influences that lead to their distortion. Even among those with the most brilliant memory, its traces are very plastic.” One of Maurice Chevalier's songs talks about a disagreement that arose between a couple of lovers due to the fact that they each remember the past in their own way and very differently. He is romantic, she is quite earthly, but was there a moon that night?.. We will never know. Our brain filters and selects the events we experience using a mechanism that is little understood to us, controlled by the subconscious. The choice of things to remember depends on our mood, place of stay, moment in time, cultural traditions and other factors. Being completely confident that we are right, we may remember some event completely differently from how our friends remember it. This is why witness testimony is often of so little value. We see only part of the picture, usually the part we want to see. A good illustration is the story of Rashomon in Kurosawa's film. Each of his characters has their own version of the same event, and in the end the viewer comes to the conclusion: it is impossible to know what really happened. Because the reliability of memory is so limited, we should not be too confident in declaring that we remember something well. If, however, we remember the course of events consciously and methodically, we are much more likely to retain a more objective picture. For example, you can specially train police officers to fix their attention on some specific things - license plates, physical signs of people or places, etc.
Although it is impossible to claim perfect memory, because it depends partly on unconscious processes, it can be improved by developing your attention. Memory is subjective, it is part of our personality. We can learn to control it, at least to the limited extent that our life itself can be controlled. The amazing thing about memory is that it reconciles the emotional and rational principles in us, and you will only benefit if you actively influence their unification.
A useful metaphor: comparing the mind to a camera
Due to the importance of visual memory for memorization processes, I will roughly liken the brain to a camera. So, imagine that your brain is a very sensitive camera that captures everything that is displayed in it. Most of the time it focuses automatically and we are not aware of what is being done to create a clear image. When you have memory problems, it's like an autofocus system malfunctioning: you now have to manually position the lens, which is essentially what you do when you're immersed in an exciting book or other interesting activity. You choose book subjects and activities that are worthy of your attention based on your goals. You become the master of the situation in the processes of recording events by memory and, perhaps, act more creatively - it’s as if you are making your own movie. You outline the plot of this film and choose what angle to shoot from. You may realize that when your mind was under automatic control, it was limited in its expression. However, it was well-regulated to effectively select what was important to it to register in a given situation. This is a complex mechanism that operates unconsciously as long as it is under the influence of a sufficiently strong motivation. Such motivation may be related to work, a sense of responsibility, natural curiosity, or life aspirations. The choice of memorized images in each situation depends on its specifics. You can take control of the memory by going to "manual control", i.e. to realize what you want to remember. Make a general plan of action in accordance with your “plot” and take note of all the information related to it. When consciousness intervenes, much more faithful and lasting traces remain in your memory.
When analyzing what you remember, think about your mood, feelings and impressions. Don't hesitate to make comments about this emotional context. This will make it much easier for you to retrieve information from memory at the right time. Such mental training will develop your curiosity, which sometimes lies dormant in us. Curiosity is the very key to our attention that will open the way to a good memory.
conclusions
Memory is a complex mental process that can be better understood by looking at it from different aspects.
A. Physiological aspect
1. Anatomy: An important memory center is located in the hippocampus, located in the temporal lobes of the brain.
2. Neurochemistry: one of the substances necessary for the functioning of memory is acetylcholine; it is found in large quantities in the hippocampus and plays the role of a neurotransmitter.
3. Electrophysiology: Brain activity is reflected in the electrical activity of the brain (electroencephalogram).
B. Psychological aspect
1. Information processing (stimulus - response): recording information in memory and retrieving it is greatly facilitated by consciously choosing stimuli and concentrating attention on them.
2. Degree of information processing: simultaneous consideration of our logical and emotional reactions guarantees a better recording of the material in memory. The better the quality of this recording itself, the easier it is to retrieve it.
3. Time Frame: There are two types of memory. Short-term memory is superficial and fragile. To ensure that the information does not disappear from it after just a few seconds, you have to repeat it to yourself. Long-term memory has deep roots in our minds. It is supported by semantic coding, i.e. searching for the meaning of what is being remembered. This memory is associated with complex mental operations.
4. Storage: the system is built from three layers (active, passive, latent) in accordance with the frequency of access to recorded information. To make memorization easier, you can conventionally imagine these layers (zones) painted in three colors: blue - the active zone of the present, rust color - the passive zone of the recent past, gray - the sleeping beauty among the sleepy kingdom in the foggy gray zone of the distant past.
CONSCIOUSNESS
BLUE ZONE
Information used regularly, necessary in everyday life. Easy to remove
ACTIVE
RUST ZONE
Information retrieved less frequently. Excellent memory in the form of recognition
PASSIVE
GRAY AREA
A lot of information accumulated since childhood. A “prompter” is required for playback. Involuntary memory (remembering by stimulus-response type)
LATENT
SUBCONSCIOUS
5. Memory is imperfect - it is subjective, subject to distortion (memories are modified after each retrieval), forgetting is an integral part of the memory mechanism.
Exercises
I. Degree of information processing
The questions posed below may seem awkward to you, and their sequence strange; You will find an explanation of this at the end of the exercise. Read the list of words and questions for them. Read only one line each time, while closing the others. Answer “yes” or “no”, then turn the page and write down from memory all the words that you remember.
1. Water – Do you like the combination of water and desert island?
2. Flower – Does this word contain the letter “e”?
3. Train – Do you like the combination of train and desert island?
4. Tire – Does this word contain the letter “e”?
5. Month – Does this word contain the letter “e”?
6. Leg – Do you like the combination of leg and desert island?
7. Chocolate – Does this word contain the letter “e”?
8. Prince – Do you like the combination of prince and desert island?
9. Carpet – Does this word contain an “e”?
10. Keys – Do you like the combination of keys and desert island?
11. Bird – Do you like the combination of bird and desert island?
12. Ruler – Does this word contain the letter “e”?
13. Boots – Do you like the boots/desert island combination?
14. Gold – Does this word contain the letter “e”?
15. Book – Do you like the combination of book and desert island?
16. Newspaper – Does this word contain the letter “e”?
17. Candy – Do you like the combination of candy and desert island?
18. Honey – Does this word contain the letter “e”?
19. Box – Do you like the combination of box and desert island?
20. Cat – Does this word contain the letter “e”?
You will, of course, notice that there are two types of judgments required of you here. Review your answers to see which Type 1 or Type 2 judgments help you remember words better. Mark those words that were proposed to be associated with a desert island, and compare their number with the number of other remembered words. Now compare both types of judgments and draw a definite conclusion about the influence of the emotional moment on the degree of structuring of memorized information.
Note: Try remembering the same words after 48 hours: the results will be more impressive. The purpose of this exercise is to force you to have a direct emotional reaction when answering the question of whether you like this imaginary situation on a desert island. This emotional judgment is compared with the intellectual one when answering the second question (about letters), and we see that words that excite an emotional reaction are better remembered.
II. Immediate reread
At this stage, you should already have a fairly clear idea of how our memory works. Test your memory without rereading the text. What do you remember from the previous chapter? Use the best method of recall: immediately re-read what you just read. Immediate re-reading is the best way to remember. Strike while the iron is hot, that's when it's easiest to forge.
III. Attentiveness test
Many people don't pay much attention to their surroundings. When you receive guests at your home, try a little experiment. After about half an hour of communication, when the conversation has already begun, ask your friends to turn their backs to their immediate neighbors so that they cannot see them. Ask someone to answer a series of questions about their neighbor or neighbor.
1. What color is he (or she) wearing? Try to describe these clothes.
2. Does your neighbor wear a tie or scarf?
3. Is he (or she) perfumed?
4. What kind of shoes is he (or she) wearing?
5. Does she have a handbag with her?
6. Does she wear jewelry? If yes, describe them.
7. Describe his (or her) hair: color, type, style?
8. What color are his (her) eyes?
9. Does he (or she) smoke?
10. Does he (she) hold a glass in his hand? You can also ask questions about the decor of the room in which you are hosting guests. The easiest way to do this is to take them to another room or to the garden. You will see how little observant people are, but with training anyone can become observant. If you're too shy to put on a show, at least try this test on yourself!
Remember:
What is the sensory system called?
Answer. The sensory system is a part of the nervous system responsible for the perception of certain signals (so-called sensory stimuli) from the external or internal environment. The sensory system consists of receptors, neural pathways and parts of the brain responsible for processing received signals. The most well-known sensory systems are vision, hearing, touch, taste and smell. The sensory system can sense physical properties such as temperature, taste, sound, or pressure.
Analyzers are also called sensory systems. The concept of “analyzer” was introduced by the Russian physiologist I. P. Pavov. Analyzers (sensory systems) are a set of formations that perceive, transmit and analyze information from the environment and internal environment of the body.
Questions after § 34
What brain structures are responsible for memory formation?
Answer. The following brain structures are responsible for memory: the hippocampus and cortex:
Cerebral cortex - responsible for the memory of impressions perceived through the senses and associations between sensations;
Hippocampus – connects into a single whole facts, dates, names, impressions that have emotional significance.
Besides:
Cerebellum - it is involved in the formation of memory during repetition and the development of conditioned reflexes;
The striatum is a collection of structures in the forebrain that is involved in the formation of habits.
How does the "memory web" work?
Answer. There is memory switching that can revive the desired memories. At the same time, the nerve nodes of the cerebral cortex and hippocampus are activated. Such connections constitute a “web of memory.” The more connections, the larger the “web”.
How are sensory, short-term and long-term memory related?
Answer. Basic memory processes: memorization, storage and reproduction. Based on the duration of these processes, three types of memory are distinguished. Sensory or instantaneous memory contains information received from receptors. It retains traces of exposure for a very short time - from 0.1 seconds to several seconds. If the received signals do not attract the attention of the higher parts of the brain, memory traces are erased and the receptors perceive new signals. If information from the receptors is important, it is transferred to short-term memory. It stores information that a person is thinking about at the moment. If information is not re-entered, it will be lost. Only memories that are reinforced by repetition or associated with other memories enter long-term memory, where they can be stored for hours, months, or years.
How does memory develop?
Answer. Involuntary memory is formed without conscious control. Thanks to such memory, most of a person's life experience is acquired. Voluntary memory includes consciousness and requires volitional efforts, since a person sets himself the goal of remembering the necessary information. Motor or motor memory is the memorization and reproduction of various movements, the basis of motor skills. Verbal-logical memory allows you to remember and reproduce thoughts expressed in words and other signs. Thanks to this type of memory, a person operates with concepts, understands the meaning of the acquired information.. Figurative memory allows him to preserve and reproduce visual, auditory, and olfactory images. Emotional memory is the memory of feelings. It is known that things associated with positive or negative emotions are remembered better. All types of memory are closely interconnected.
Human memory is one of the most interesting mysteries. Why does it weaken over the years, and how to preserve your mind in old age. How does human memory work? This question probably interests many people. A person's first memories begin around the age of three. So many do not remember what happened to them before the age of three. Some people don’t remember what happened in their early childhood until they were four years old.
At 10-12 months, the child already remembers something. At two years old, he can already retain entire episodes in his memory. A child will not be able to remember anything until he learns to talk about his impressions.
A fleeting impression during sleep becomes a memory.
Studies have shown that in order for a person to form memories, he needs a complete sleep cycle. Therefore, if something made a strong impression on you during the day, then during your rest, at night, you will still continue to think about this impression. Overnight the perception will only intensify. Long-term memory fades because we simply sometimes cannot remember a detail that would resurrect our memory. Many researchers believe that information that is stored in long-term memory remains there forever. However, we cannot remember some events simply because we have lost one of the links in the associative series.
What to do to remember what needs to be done the next day. For example, tomorrow you need to go to the post office to pick up a letter, but you either forget or have no time. How can you avoid forgetting this? It turns out that future memory works best on subject connections. Therefore, the road past the post office and the notice on the table will be much more effective than plans built in your head.
Why does memory weaken? The reason for this may not only be age. Stress, dehydration, infectious diseases are just a few reasons; in addition, alcohol, certain medications, depression, nutrition, anxiety, and problems with the thyroid gland can also ruin memory.
Is memory loss a natural and inevitable process?
No, not all people lose their memory as they age. Memory works better in those who lead a more active intellectual and physical lifestyle than in those who are not engaged in mental activity and lead a sedentary lifestyle. If you don't lead a secluded lifestyle, you have a better chance of maintaining intellectual health in old age.
In addition, high blood pressure can cause memory loss. Thus, increased pressure affects the vessels that supply blood to the brain. For this reason, you may lose your memory. But research shows that memory can be improved with aerobic exercise.
Even an elderly person can regain their former memory speed. To do this, you need to force yourself to think as often as possible, for example, play board games, solve crosswords. In addition, brisk walking (sports) helps very well.
Over the years, it can be difficult for a person to remember several events at once. For example, you parked your car in the evening, but in the morning you can’t remember where. But this does not mean that you have memory problems. It's just that when you parked your car, you could simply be distracted by a call or conversation. In order to cope with difficulties of this kind, you need to concentrate better when you park your car or when you put your keys down, look for a few seconds longer at the place where you put them. Memory problems are, of course, the first sign of future Alzheimer's disease. But not all people who suffer from this disorder eventually develop Alzheimer's disease. If you suddenly cannot find your way in a familiar place, this will be a serious sign of this disease. And also a serious reason to seek help from a doctor.
Is dementia contagious?
If one spouse has dementia, the other spouse may also have dementia. A study was recently conducted that confirmed that if a wife suffers from a memory disorder, then the risk of her husband increases 12 times. Women turned out to be stronger: if the husband has poor memory, the wife’s risk increases 4 times. However, the minds of many study participants remained unclouded, despite the fact that they had a weak-minded spouse nearby. But the stress that comes with depression, difficult caregiving, and overall poor health can take its toll.
Human memory extremely economical. If it retained all the stimuli and all the information, all the everyday little things, then most likely the brain would explode or we would become incapacitated due to excessive exposure to stimuli.
The brain differentiates and selects new information to be able to work more efficiently. And each person’s brain makes this choice individually. Memory retains only those things to which we attach special significance and which we consciously and emotionally process. Thus, feelings play a significant role in the process of storing information in memory. The so-called limbic system is responsible for this, which, according to the structure of the brain, is located directly under the cerebral cortex. The limbic system, the center of feelings and the brain, also includes the “new detector” hippocampus, which evaluates incoming information from an emotional point of view. No new information, whether factual or biographical, enters long-term memory without passing through the limbic system, which serves as a filter, seeks out only relevant information, associates it with feelings, and then distributes it to the cerebral cortex. The more often this process occurs, the more emotionally charged it is, the faster this information will be learned and the longer it will be stored in memory.
Novelty, meaning, and emotional intensity are decisive factors in what we store in our memory. Strong emotional events are processed differently than minor ones, and extraneous facts are perceived worse than personal experience. Neutral information, such as ordinary school material, must be processed consciously, repeated, transformed, supplemented and simply memorized. The principle “ First in last out“, meaning: what a person learned first is remembered best. Fresh information can be stored in memory for a long time only after conscious explanation.
Thus, the expression “transfer knowledge” is erroneous. Knowledge cannot be fully transmitted, but must be built into the memory of each person through his own system of neural connections. Goethe said a wonderful phrase: “You must acquire your knowledge in order to possess it!”
Just because our brain is very economical and has many filters, however, does not mean that our large storage, our long-term memory, can ever be full. The cerebral cortex has an inconceivably large memory capacity. And the more we saturate it, the faster and better our brain can think and remember new information.
Memory is a complex network that stretches from the senses to the most complex parts of the brain. It manifests itself in everything from simple movements to difficult tasks, and ultimately makes us who we are. According to the three neurological processes, memory can be sensory, short-term or long-term.
Functioning automatically, the brain creates sensory memories unconsciously. Thus, sensory memory is a type of passive perception. It does not require attention to operate and memories are stored for the shortest period of time, perhaps a second. Sensory memory has varieties according to the basic senses of a person. Iconic (vision), echoic (hearing) and tactile (touch) have been the most thoroughly studied.
Iconic memory includes both the retention ability of the eyes and data that is recorded by vision and then processed by the brain. The corresponding memories begin to form from photoreceptors on the retina, which transmit information to ganglion cells, then to the primary visual cortex in the occipital lobe, and finally to the temporal superior sulcus.
An analogue of echoic memory is a storage tank in which sounds are stored in such a way that they can be understood some time after playback. One of the common examples of how echoic memory works is a situation where a person asks the interlocutor the last question asked and answers it before he repeats it. The activity of this type of memory occurs in several areas of the brain, including the primary auditory cortex, the left parts of the prefrontal, premotor and parietal cortices, the superior temporal gyrus and the inferior temporal gyrus.
Tactile memory is based on fleeting sensations such as itching and pain. It spreads, starting from the nerves, throughout the body: through the spinal cord to the postcentral gyrus of the parietal lobe. Sensations describing the texture and density of objects are perceived in the parietal operculum, and their location activates the right superior parietal and temporoparietal lobes.
Although memories are stored in short-term memory for a much longer time than in sensory memory, its duration is only 20-30 seconds. Because it by its nature relies on less complex structures (and therefore far fewer neurons) than long-term memory, short-term memory has a limited capacity; Depending on the person (and language), its capacity is only about 7 pieces of information. While this seems like a ridiculously small number, try looking quickly and then remembering a random set of 10 numbers or words. This magical number 7 can be increased in several ways, but they all involve the process of fragmentation. Someone's cell phone number is a series of eleven digits, but it's easy to remember because the memory processes the information in chunks. The prefrontal cortex plays a key role in short-term memory. Here the brain processes both visual information and phonological information. Notably, short-term memory is believed to be primarily phonological. For example, native speakers of Chinese, where most words are one syllable, can remember 10 digits compared to our seven. Short-term memories are easily forgotten when nerve impulses stop carrying relevant information and switch to another.
The process of formation of long-term memory begins with short-term memory, which, with a series of operations, allows information to be preserved. When short-term memories are transferred to long-term storage, the hippocampus produces new proteins. They change a selected group of neurons, which send electrochemical messages, creating neural pathways. Patients with Alzheimer's disease can recover memories from childhood, but forget relevant information because the damaged hippocampus is no longer able to produce new proteins, and therefore new memories, but strong neural pathways made in youth allow old information to be stored. Long-term memories are harder to forget. To do this, they must not be used for a long time, or new ones must be placed on them.
